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Plain Language Summaries
This KMb Portal will focusing on lower-level processing skills and their influence on Chinese Language Learners. This decision was heavily influenced by Nassaji's (2014) The role and importance of lower-level processes in second language reading.
In the article, Nassaji identifies a variety of lower-level processes, that research has shown, highly impact reading proficiency. These are,
- Word recognition
- Graphophonic processes - how readers use the appearance (orthography which means letters) and sound (pronounciation) to find the meaning.
- Language structure and organization
Included below are five plain language summaries outlining contemporary research. Within each are outlines of the research, and instructions on how the research can be applied to classroom practice.
Language Structure and Organization: Derivations and Compounding
Building on what you knowZhang, D., & Koda, K. (2014). Awareness of derivation and compounding in Chinese-English biliteracy acquisition. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 17(1), 55-73
- Chinese learners are able to bring their understanding of compounding to English, but not of derivations.
- Students' understanding of both derivations and compounding help predict their Chinese reading comprehension abilities
Strategies for the classroom:
- Train students to be word detectives, by focusing on the root, prefix, and suffixes of words.
- Derivations do exist in Chinese, but they are very similar to compounding (they both add an extra character). Draw attention to the transfer between compounding in Chinese and English by working with your co-teacher, then show students how prefixes and suffixes work similarly in English to change and alter the meaning of words.
Word Recognition and Graphophonic Processes: Spelling
Spelling brings it all togetherLin, D., Liu, Y., Sun, H., Wong, R. K. S., & Yeung, S. S. S. (2017). The pathway to English word reading in Chinese ESL children: the role of spelling. Reading and Writing, 30(1), 87-103.
- Focusing on spelling will help students develop a variety of skills, including understanding of letters, vocabulary, and phonological awareness.
- Because Chinese is non-alphabetical, focusing on spelling will help learners develop concepts of alphabet and print.
Strategies for the Classroom:
- Emphasize the spelling of words and the role of letters in forming different words.
- Help students understand the morphemes and parts of a word. As such, they will gain a better understanding of how English words work.
- Chinese logographs have meaning. By focusing on the meanings behind English morphemes, we can help facilitate transfer.
Word Recognition and Graphophonic Processes: Transfer from L1 written forms
Letters learnedWang, M., Koda, K., & Perfetti, C. A. (2003). Alphabetic and nonalphabetic L1 effects in English word identification: A comparison of Korean and Chinese English L2 learners. Cognition, 87(2), 129-149.
- The researchers compared how English language learners coming from an alphabetic background (Korean) and non-alphabetic background (Chinese) read texts. These languages were chosen because they are from a distinctly different language family than English
- Chinese English learners rely more on the orthography of a word when trying to read it. This means, they focus more on how the word looks, and not the sound that the letters make.
- Chinese learners are less effective at manipulating different phonemes (sound parts of a word) than Korean learners
Strategies for the Classroom:
- Chinese learners are more attuned to the orthography of a word. Instruction based around word forms can be valuable for developing student capacity
- Chinese learners are less sensitive to phonological cues when reading. It is important that explicit instruction towards phonetic awareness takes place, so that students utilize these strategies in their readings
Graphophonic Processes: Stress transfer
Watch Your ToneChoi, W., Tong, X., & Cain, K. (2016). Lexical prosody beyond first-language boundary: Chinese lexical tone sensitivity predicts English reading comprehension. Journal of experimental child psychology, 148, 70-86.
- Researchers found a connection between Chinese tonal awareness, English stress awareness, and English reading
- Tonal awareness in Chinese, seems to transfer to stress and word differentiation skills in English
- Tonal awareness skills can help Chinese learners develop prosody in English, due to a focus on stress and tone
Strategies for the Classroom:
- Focus on stress, intonation, and tone when speaking in the classroom. Chinese students are naturally sensitive to these changes, and so will be more responsive to their use in the classroom
- Consider teaching fluency programs to help develop transfer between Chinese and English - Repeated Reading programs, poetry recitation, shared reading, readers theater, and other activities can aid the development of prosody in learners
Graphophonic Processes: Vowel Quality
It Sounds the SameZhang, Y., & Francis, A. (2010). The weighting of vowel quality in native and non-native listeners' perception of English lexical stress. Journal of Phonetics, 38(2), 260-271.
- In English we use vowel quality (how fully a vowel is pronounced) to differentiate between certain words - for example CONtract (noun) conTRACT (verb). Vowel quality is not used to differentiate between words in Chinese
- Researchers found that Mandarin English speakers were able to effectively use vowel quality when differentiating between different words
- This study recruited subjects from Purdue University, therefore it is possible that new Mandarin English learners are less able to differentiate words based on vowel quality
Strategies for the Classroom:
- Teach a wide variety of different words, including homonym pairs, and words that are only differentiated by slight changes to pronunciation
- Give students ample opportunity to focus on, and practice different forms of stress and pronunciation, so as to develop their sensitivity
- Teaching rhyme, cadence, and stress will help students develop greater awareness of the flow of English language
Nassaji, H. (2014). The role and importance of lower-level processes in second language reading. Language Teaching, 47(1), 1-37.